<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
<!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/inc/acpd/copernicus.dtd">
<article language="en">
	<journal>
		<journal_title>Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions</journal_title>
		<journal_url>www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net</journal_url>
		<issn>1680-7367</issn>
		<eissn>1680-7375</eissn>
		<volume_number>9</volume_number>
		<issue_number>2</issue_number>
		<publication_year>2009</publication_year>
	</journal>
	<doi>10.5194/acpd-9-5447-2009</doi>
	<article_url>http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/9/5447/2009/</article_url>
	<abstract_html>http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/9/5447/2009/acpd-9-5447-2009.html</abstract_html>
	<fulltext_pdf>http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/9/5447/2009/acpd-9-5447-2009.pdf</fulltext_pdf>
	<start_page>5447</start_page>
	<end_page>5464</end_page>
	<publication_date>2009-03-02</publication_date>
	<article_title content_type="html">The climatic effects of the direct injection of water vapour into the stratosphere by large volcanic eruptions</article_title>
	<authors>
		<author numeration="1" affiliations="1">
			<name>M. M. Joshi</name>
			<email>m.m.joshi@reading.ac.uk</email>
		</author>
		<author numeration="2" affiliations="2">
			<name>G. S. Jones</name>
		</author>
	</authors>
	<affiliations>
		<affiliation numeration="1" content_type="html">Walker Institute for Climate System Research, University of Reading, UK</affiliation>
		<affiliation numeration="2" content_type="html">Hadley Centre for Climate Change, Met Office, UK</affiliation>
	</affiliations>
	<abstract content_type="html">We describe a novel mechanism that can significantly lower the amplitude of
the climatic response to certain large volcanic eruptions. The proximity of
oceans to some volcanoes can cause significant entrainment of water into
coignimbrite clouds during the eruption. If sufficiently large amounts of
this entrained water vapour enter the stratosphere, a climatically
significant amount of water vapour can be left over in the lower
stratosphere after the eruption, even after sulphate aerosol formation. This
excess stratospheric humidity warms the climate, and acts to balance the
climatic cooling induced by the volcanic aerosol, especially because the
humidity anomaly lasts for a period that is longer that the residence time
of aerosol in the stratosphere. In particular, Northern Hemisphere cooling
is reduced in magnitude. We discuss this mechanism in the context of the
discrepancy between the observed and modelled cooling following the Krakatau
eruption in 1883.</abstract>
	<references>
		<reference numeration="1" content_type="text"> Angell, J. K.: Impact of El Ninήo on the delineation of tropospheric cooling due to volcanic eruptions, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 3697β3704, 1988. </reference>
		<reference numeration="2" content_type="text"> Bekki, S., Pyle, J. A., Zhong, W., Toumi, R., Haigh, J. D., and Pyle, D. M.: The role of microphysical and chemical processes in prolonging the climate forcing of the Toba eruption, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(19), 2669β2672, 1996. </reference>
		<reference numeration="3" content_type="text"> Brohan, P., Kennedy, J. J., Harris, I., Tett, S. F. B., and Jones, P. D.: Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes: a new dataset from 1850, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12106, doi:10.1029/2005JD006548, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="4" content_type="text"> Dartevelle, S., Ernst, G. G. J., Stix, J., and Bernard, A.: Origin of the Mount Pinatubo climactic eruption cloud: implications for volcanic hazards and atmospheric impacts, Geology, 30, 663β666, 2002. </reference>
		<reference numeration="5" content_type="text"> Forster, P. M. De F. and Shine, K. P.: Assessing the climate impact of trends in stratospheric water vapour, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1086, doi:10.1029/2001GL013909, 2002. </reference>
		<reference numeration="6" content_type="text"> Forster, P. M. De F. and Taylor, K. E.: Climate Forcings and Climate Sensitivities Diagnosed from Coupled Climate Model Integrations, J. Climate, 19, 6181β6194, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="7" content_type="text"> Francis, P. and Self, S.: The eruption of Krakatau, Scientific American, 249, 146β159, 1983. </reference>
		<reference numeration="8" content_type="text"> Glaze, L. S., Baloga, S. M., and Wilson, L.: Transport of atmospheric water vapor by volcanic eruption columns, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6099β6108, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="9" content_type="text"> Gleckler, P. J., AchutaRao, K., Gregory, J. M., Santer, B. D., Taylor, K. E., and Wigley, T. M. L.: Krakatau lives: The effect of volcanic eruptions on ocean heat content and thermal expansion, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17702, doi:10.1029/2006GL026771, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="10" content_type="text"> Hall, T. M. and Waugh, D. W.: Timescales for the stratospheric circulation derived from tracers, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 8991β9001, 1997. </reference>
		<reference numeration="11" content_type="text"> Hansen, J., Sato, M., Ruedy, R., et al.: Climate simulations for 1880β2003 with GISS modelE, Clim. Dynam., 29, 661β696, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="12" content_type="text"> Johns, T. C., Durman, C. F., Banks, H. T., et al.: The new Hadley Centre climate model HadGEM1: Evaluation of coupled simulations, J. Climate, 19, 1327β1353, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="13" content_type="text"> Joshi, M. M. and Shine, K. P.: A GCM study of volcanic eruptions as a cause of increased stratospheric water vapour, J. Climate, 16, 3525β3534, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="14" content_type="text"> Joshi, M. M., Charlton, A. J., and Scaife, A. A.: On the influence of stratospheric water vapour changes on the tropospheric circulation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L09806, doi:10.1029/2006GL025983, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="15" content_type="text"> Knutson, T. R., Delworth, T. L., Dixon, K. W., Held, I. M., Lu, J., Ramaswamy, V., Schwarzkopf, M. D., Stenchikov, G., and Stouffer, R. J.: Assessment of twentieth-century regional surface temperature trends using the GFDL CM2 coupled models, J. Climate, 19, 1624β1651, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="16" content_type="text"> Mann, M. E., Gille, E. P., Bradley, R. S., Hughes, M. K., Overpeck, J. T., Keimig, F. T., and Gross, W. S.: Global Temperature Patterns in Past Centuries: An Interactive Presentation, Earth Interactions, 4(4), 1β29, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="17" content_type="text"> Miles, G. M., Grainger, R. G., and Highwood, E. J.: The significance of volcanic eruption strength and frequency for climate, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 130, 2361β2374, 2004. </reference>
		<reference numeration="18" content_type="text"> Pitari, G. and Mancini, E.: Short-term climatic impact of the 1991 volcanic eruption of Mt. Pinatubo and effects on atmospheric tracers, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 2, 91β108, 2002. </reference>
		<reference numeration="19" content_type="text"> Randall, D. A., Wood, R. A., Bony, S., Colman, R., Fichefet, T., Fyfe, J., Kattsov, V., Pitman, A., Shukla, J., Srinivasan, J., Stouffer, R. J., Sumi, A., and Taylor, K. E.: Climate Models and Their Evaluation, in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 2007. </reference>
		<reference numeration="20" content_type="text"> Ramachandran, S., Ramaswamy, V., Stenchikov, G. L., and Robock, A.: Radiative impacts of the Mt. Pinatubo volcanic eruption: Lower stratospheric response, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 24409β24429, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="21" content_type="text"> Rayner, N. A., Brohan, P., Parker, D. E., Folland, C. K., Kennedy, J. J., Vanicek, M., Ansell, T., and Tett, S. F. B.: Improved analyses of changes and uncertainties in sea surface temperature measured in situ since the mid-nineteenth century: the HadSST2 data set, J. Climate, 19, 446β469, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="22" content_type="text"> Robock, A.: Volcanic Eruptions and climate, Rev. Geophys., 38, 191β219, 2000. </reference>
		<reference numeration="23" content_type="text"> Scaillet, B., Luhr, J., and Carroll, M. R.: Petrological and Volcanological constraints on volcanic sulfur emissions to the atmosphere, in Volcanism and the Earth&apos;s atmosphere, Geophysical Monograph, 19, 11β40, 2003. </reference>
		<reference numeration="24" content_type="text"> Schroder, W.: Were noctilucent clouds caused by the Krakatau eruption? A case study of the research problems before 1885, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 80, 2081β2085, 1999. </reference>
		<reference numeration="25" content_type="text"> Self, S. and Rampino, M. R.: The 1883 eruption of Krakatau, Nature, 294, 699β704, 1981. </reference>
		<reference numeration="26" content_type="text"> Stenchikov, G., Hamilton, K., Stouffer, R. J., Robock, A., Ramaswamy, V., Santer, B., and Graf, H. F.: Arctic Oscillation response to volcanic eruptions in the IPCC AR4 climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07107, doi:10.1029/2005JD006286, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="27" content_type="text"> Stothers, R. B.: Major optical depth perturbations to the stratosphere from volcanic eruptions: Pyrheliometric period, 1881β1960, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 3901β3920, 1996. </reference>
		<reference numeration="28" content_type="text"> Stott, P. A., Jones, G. S., Lowe, J. A., Thorne, P., Durman, C., Johns, T. C., and Thelen, J. C.: Transient simulations of HadGEM1 using historic and SRES scenarios, J. Climate, 19, 2763β2782, 2006. </reference>
		<reference numeration="29" content_type="text"> Wallace, P. J.: Volatiles in subduction zone magmas: concentrations and fluxes based on melt inclusion and volcanic gas data, J. Volcanol. Geot. Res., 140, 217β240, 2005. </reference>
	</references>
</article>

