Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions
www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net
1680-7367
1680-7375
8
2
2008
10.5194/acpd-8-6603-2008
http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/6603/2008/
http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/6603/2008/acpd-8-6603-2008.html
http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/6603/2008/acpd-8-6603-2008.pdf
6603
6651
2008-04-04
Evaluation of a new lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> parameterization for cloud resolving models and its associated uncertainties
C. Barthe
christelle.barthe@aero.obs-mip.fr
M. C. Barth
National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
now at: Laboratoire d'Aérologie, CNRS/Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
A new parameterization of the lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> has been developed for cloud-resolving models.
This parameterization is based on three unique characteristics.
First, the cells that can produce lightning are identified using a vertical velocity threshold.
Second, the flash rate in each cell is estimated from the non-precipitation and precipitation ice mass flux product.
Third, the source location is filamentary instead of volumetric as in previous parameterizations.
<br><br>
This parameterization has been tested on the 10 July 1996 Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols and Ozone (STERAO) storm.
Comparisons of the simulated flash rate and NO mixing ratio with observations at different locations and stages of the storm show a good agreement.
An individual flash produces on average 121±41 moles of NO (7.3±2.5×10<sup>25</sup> molecules
NO) for the simulated high cloud base, high shear storm.
Sensitivity tests have been performed to study the impact of the flash rate, the
cloud-to-ground flash ratio, the flash length, the spatial distribution of the NO
molecules, and the production rate per flash on the NO concentration and distribution.
Results show a strong impact from the flash rate, the spatial placement of the
lightning-NO<sub>x</sub> source and the number of moles produced per flash.
Barth, M C., Stuart, A L., and Skamarock, W C.: Numerical simulations of the July 10, 1996, Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols, and Ozone STERAO- Deep convection experiment storm: Redistribution of soluble tracers, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D12), 12 381–12 400, \doi10.1029/2001JD900139, 2001.
Barth, M C., Kim, S.-W., Skamarock, W C., Stuart, A L., Pickering, K E., and Ott, L E.: Simulations of the redistribution of formaldehylde, formic acid, and peroxides in the July 10, 1996 STERAO deep convection storm, J. Geophys. Res., 112, \doi10.1029/2006JD008046, 2007a.
Barth, M C., Kim, S.-W., Wang, C., Pickering, K E., Ott, L E., Stenchikov, G., Leriche, M., Cautenet, S., Pinty, J.-P., Barthe, C., Mari, C., Helsdon, J., Farley, R., Fridlind, A M., Ackerman, A S., Spiridinov, V., and Telenta, B.: Cloud-scale model intercomparison of chemical constituent transport in deep convection, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4709–4731, 2007b.
Barthe, C. and Pinty, J.-P.: Simulation of Electrified Storms with Comparison of the Charge Structure and Lightning Efficiency, J. Geophys. Res., 112, \doi10.1029/2006JD008241, 2007a.
Barthe, C. and Pinty, J.-P.: Simulation of a supercellular storm using a three-dimensional mesoscale model with an explicit lightning flash scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 112, \doi10.1029/2006JD007484, 2007b.
Barthe, C., Molinié, G., and Pinty, J.-P.: Description and first results of an explicit electrical scheme in a 3D cloud resolving model, Atmos. Res., 76, 95–113, 2005.
Barthe, C., Deierling, W., and Barth, M C.: On the use of ice mass fluxes to estimate total lightning in cloud resolving models, Eos Trans. AGU, 88(52), Fall Meeting Suppl., Abstract AE43A–02, 2007a.
Barthe, C., Pinty, J.-P., and Mari, C.: Lightning-produced NO$\rm_x$ in an explicit electrical scheme: a STERAO case study, J. Geophys. Res., 112, \doi10.1029/2006JD007402, 2007b.
Blyth Jr., A M., H. J C., Driscoll, K., Gadian, A M., and Latham, J.: Determination of ice precipitation rates and thunderstorm anvil ice contents from satellite observations of lightning, Atmos. Res., 59–60, 217–229, 2001.
Boccippio, D J., Cummins, K L., Christian, H J., and Goodman, S J.: Combined satellite- and surface-based estimation of the intracloud-cloud-to-ground lightning ratio over the Continental United States, Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 108–122, 2001.
Boccippio, D J., Koshak, W J., and Blakeslee, R J.: Performance Assessment of the Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor. Part I: Predicted Diurnal Variability, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 19, 1318–1332, 2002.
Bruning, E C., Rust, W D., Schuur, T J., MacGorman, D R., Krehbiel, P R., and Rison, W.: Electrical and polarimetric radar observations of a multicell storm in TELEX, Mon. Weather Rev., 135, 2525–2544, 2007.
Christian, H J., Blakeslee, R J., Goodman, S J., Mach, D A., Stewart, M F., Buechler, D E., Koshak, W J., Hall, J M., Boeck, W L., Driscoll, K T., and Boccippio, D J.: The Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), paper presented at 11th International Conference on Atmosperic Electricity, Guntersville, Alabama, 1999.
Cummins, K L., Murphy, M J., Bardo, E A., Hiscox, W L., Pyle, R B., and Pifer, A E.: A combined TOA/MDF technology upgrade of the U.S. National Detection Network, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 9035–9044, 1998.
DeCaria, A J., Pickering, K E., Stenchikov, G L., Scala, J R., Stith, J L., Dye, J E., Ridley, B A., and Laroche, P.: A cloud-scale model study of lightning-generated NO<sub>x</sub> in an individual thunderstorm during STERAO-A, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 11 601–11 616, 2000.
DeCaria, A J., Pickering, K E., Stenchikov, G L., and Ott, L E.: Lightning-generated NO<sub>x</sub> and its impact on tropospheric ozone production: A three-dimensional modeling study of a Stratosphere-Troposphere Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols and Ozone (STERAO-A) thunderstorm, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D14303, doi:10.1029/2004JD005556, 2005.
Defer, E., Blanchet, P., Théry, C., Laroche, P., Dye, J E., Venticinque, M., and Cummins, K L.: Lightning activity for the July 10, 1996, storm during the Stratosphere-Troposphere Experiment: Radiation, Aerosol, and Ozone-A (STERAO-A) experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 10 151–10 172, \doi10.1029/2000JD900849, 2001.
Defer, E., Laroche, P., Dye, J E., and Skamarock, W C.: Use of total lightning lengths to estimate NO$\rm_x$ production in a Colorado thunderstorm, in: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 9-13 June 2003, Int. Comm. on Atmos. Electr., Versailles, France, 2003.
Defer, E., Blanchet, P., and Laroche, P.: Ground based VHF and space borne optical measurements of lightning flashes during the STERAO-A experiment, in: The Lightning Imaging Sensor International Workshop, 11–14 September 2006, Huntsville, Alabama, 2006.
Deierling, W.: The relationship between total lightning and ice fluxes, Ph.D. thesis, University of Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama, 2006.
Dye, J E., Ridley, B A., Skamarock, W., Barth, M., Venticinque, M., Defer, E., Blanchet, P., Théry, C., Laroche, P., Baumann, K., Hubler, G., Parrish, D D., Ryerson, T., Trainer, M., Frost, G., Holloway, J S., Matejka, T., Bartels, D., Fehsenfeld, F C., Tuck, A., Rutledge, S A., Lang, T., Stith, J., and Zerr, R.: An overview of the Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosols, and Ozone (STERAO)-Deep Convection experiment with results for the July 10, 1996 storm, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 10 023–10 045, \doi10.1029/1999JD901116, 2000.
Fehr, T., Höller, H., and Huntrieser, H.: Model study on production and transport of lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> in a EULINOX supercell storm, J. Geophys. Res., 109, 1–17, doi:10.1029/2003JD003 935, 2004.
Franzblau, E. and Popp, C J.: Nitrogen oxides produced from lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 11 089–11 104, 1989.
Harlin, J D., Hamlin, T., Krehbiel, P., Thomas, R., and Rison, W.: Short duration discharges located by NMIMT's Lightning Mapping Array, in: Fall meeting, December 2003, American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, CA, 2003.
Helsdon, J H., Wu, G., and Farley, R D.: An intracloud lightning parameterization scheme for a storm electrification model, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 5865–5884, 1992.
Höller, H., Finke, U., Huntrieser, H., Hagen, M., and Feigl, C.: Lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> (LINOX): experimental design and case study results, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 13 911–13 922, \doi10.1029/1999JD900019, 1999.
Huntrieser, H., Feigl, C., Schlager, H., Schroder, F., Gerbig, C., van Velthoven, P., Flatoy, F., Théry, C., Petzold, A., Höller, H., and Schumann, U.: Airborne measurements of NO<sub>x</sub>, tracer species and small particles during the Europeean Lightning Nitrogen Oxides Experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 107, D11, \doi10.1029/2000JD000209, 2002.
Jayaratne, R., Saunders, C. P R., and Hallet, J.: Laboratory studies of the charging of soft hail during ice crystal interactions, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 103, 609–630, 1983.
Krehbiel, P., Thomas, R J., Rison, W., Hamlin, T., Harlin, J., and Davis, M.: Lightning mapping observations in Central Oklahoma, Eos, pp. 21–25, 2000.
Kuhlman, K M., Ziegler, C L., Mansell, E R., MacGorman, D R., and Straka, J M.: Numerically simulated electrification and lightning of the 29 June 2000 STEPS supercell storm, Mon. Weather Rev., 134(10), 2734–2757, 2005.
Lang, T J., Rutledge, S A., Dye, J E., Venticinque, M., Laroche, P., and Defer, E.: Anomalously low negative cloud-to-ground lightning flash rates in intense convective storms observed during STERAO-A, Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 160–173, 2000.
Latham, J., Petersen, W A., Deierling, W., and Christian, H J.: Field identification of a unique globally dominant mechanism of thunderstorm electrification, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 133, 1453–1457, 2007.
Lin, Y.-L., Farley, R D., and Orville, H D.: Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model, J. Clim. Appl. Meteor., 22, 1065–1092, 1983.
MacGorman, D R., Burgess, D W., Mazur, V., Rust, W D., Taylor, W L., and Johnson, B C.: Lightning rates relative to tornadic storm evolution on 22 May 1981, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 221–250, 1989.
Mansell, E R., MacGorman, D., Ziegler, C L., and Straka, J M.: Simulated three-dimensional branched lightning in a numerical thunderstorm model, J. Geophys. Res., 107, D9, doi:10.1029/2000JD000244, 2002.
Ott, L E., Pickering, K E., Stenchikov, G., Huntrieser, H., and Schumann, U.: Effects of lightning NO<sub>x</sub> production during the 21 July European Lightning Nitrogen Oxides Project storm studied with a three-dimensional cloud-scale chemical transport model, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D05307, doi:1029/2006JD007365, 2007.
Pickering, K E., Wang, Y., Tao, W K., Price, C., and Müller, J.-F.: Vertical distributions of lightning NO<sub>x</sub> for use in regional and global chemical transport models, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31 203–31 216, 1998.
Pinty, J.-P. and Barthe, C.: Ensemble simulation of the lightning flash variability in a 3-D cloud model with parameterizations of cloud electrification and lightning flashes, Mon. Weather Rev., 136, 380–387, 2008.
Popp, P J., Gao, R S., Marcy, T P., Fahey, D W., Hudson, P K., Thompson, T L., Kärcher, B., Ridley, B A., Weinheimer, A J., Knapp, D J., Montzka, D D., Baumgardner, D., Garrett, T J., Weinstock, E M., Smith, J B., Sayres, D S., Pittman, J V., Dhaniyala, S., Bui, T P., and Mahoney, M J.: Nitric acid uptake on subtropical cirrus cloud particles, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D06302, \doi10.1029/2003JD004255, 2004.
Price, C. and Rind, D.: A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lightning distributions, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9919–9933, 1992.
Price, C. and Rind, D.: What determines the cloud-to-ground lightning fraction in thunderstorms?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 463–466, 1993.
Price, C., Penner, J., and Prather, M.: NO<sub>x</sub> from lightning. 1. Global distribution based on lightning physics, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5929–5941, 1997.
Proctor, D E.: VHF radio pictures of cloud flashes, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 4041–4071, 1981.
Ridley, B A., Pickering, K E., and Dye, J E.: Comments on the parameterization of lightning-produced NO in global chemistry-transport models, Atmos. Environ., 39, 6184–6187, 2005.
Rison, W., Thomas, R J., Krehbiel, P R., Hamlin, T., and Harlin, J.: A GPS-based three-dimensional lightning mapping system : initial observations in Central New-Mexico, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3573–3576, 1999.
Saunders, C. P R., Keith, W D., and Mitzeva, R P.: The effect of liquid water on thunderstorm charging, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 11 007–11 017, 1991.
Schumann, U. and Huntrieser, H.: The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3823–3907, 2007.
Shao, X M. and Krehbiel, P R.: The spatial and temporal development of intracloud lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 26 641–26 668, 1996.
Skamarock, W C., Powers, J G., Barth, M., Dye, J E., Matejka, T., Bartels, D., Baumann, K., Stith, J., Parrish, D D., and Hübler, G.: Numerical simulations of the July 10 Stratospheric-Tropospheric Experiment: Radiation, Aerosol, and Ozone/Deep Convection Experiment convective system: Kinematics and transport, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 19 973–19 990, 2000.
Skamarock, W C., Dye, J E., Defer, E., Barth, M C., Stith, J L., and Ridley, B A.: Observational- and modeling-based budget of lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> in a continental thunderstorm, J. Geophys. Res., 108, D10, doi:10.1029/2002JD002163, 2003.
Skamarock, W C., Klemp, J B., Dudhia, J., Gill, D., Barker, D., Wang, W., and Powers, J G.: A description of the Advanced Research WRF Version 2, Tech. Rep. NCAR/TN468+STR, NCAR, Boulder, Colorado, 2005.
Stith, J., Dye, J., Ridley, B., Laroche, P., Defer, E., Baumann, K., Hübler, G., Zerr, R., and Venticinque, M.: NO signatures from lightning flashes, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 16 081–16 089, 1999.
Stolzenburg, M., Rust, W D., and Marshall, T C.: Electrical structure in thunderstorm convective regions – 3. Synthesis, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 14 097–14 108, 1998.
Tabazadeh, A., Toon, O B., and Jensen, E J.: A surface chemistry model for nonreactive trace gas adsorption on ice: Implications for nitric acid scavenging by cirrus, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(14), 2211–2214, \doi10.1029/1999GL900501, 1999.
Takahashi, T.: Riming electrification as a charge generation mechanism in thunderstorms, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1536–1548, 1978.
Théry, C., Laroche, P., and Blanchet, P.: EULINOX – The European Lightning Nitrogen Oxides Experiment, Rep. DLR-FB 2000-28, edited by: Höller, H. and Schumann, U., Deutches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Köln, Germany, 2000.
Thomas, R J., Krehbiel, P R., Rison, W., Hamlin, T., Harlin, J., and Shown, D.: Observations of VHF source powers radiated by lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 143–146, 2001.
Ushio, T., Heckman, S T., Christian, H J., and Kawasaki, Z.-I.: Vertical development of lightning activity observed by the LDAR system: lightning bubbles, J. Appl. Meteor., 42, 165–174, 2003.
Wang, C. and Chang, J.: Three-dimensional numerical model of cloud dynamics, microphysics, and chemistry 1. Concepts and formulation, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 14 827–14 844, 1993.
Wang, C. and Prinn, R.: On the roles of deep convection clouds in tropospheric chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 3399–3418, 2000.
Wang, Y A., DeSilva, W., Goldenbaum, G C., and Dickerson, R R.: Nitric oxide production by simulated lightning : Dependance on current, energy and pressure, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 19 149–19 159, 1998.
Wicker, L J. and Skamarock, W C.: Time-splitting methods for elastic models using forward time schemes, Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 2088–2097, 2002.
Wiens, K C., Rutledge, S A., and Tessendorf, S A.: The 29 June 2000 supercell observed during STEPS. Part II: Lightning and charge structure, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4151–4177, 2005.
Zhang, X., Helsdon, J H., and Farley, R D.: Numerical modeling of lightning-produced NO<sub>x</sub> using an explicit l ightning scheme: 2. Three-dimensional simulation and expanded chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 108, D18, doi:10.1029/2002JD003225, 2003.
Zipser, E J. and Lutz, K R.: The vertical profile of radar reflectivity of convective cells: a strong indicator of storm intensity and lightning probability?, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 1751–1759, 1994.