References

ACPD

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions

ACPD

1680-7375

Copernicus GmbH

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/acpd-8-11643-2008

Redox activity and chemical speciation of size fractioned PM in the communities of the Los Angeles – Long Beach Harbor

¹ Polidori

¹ Arhami

¹ Shafer

M. M.

² Schauer

J. J.

² Cho

³ Sioutas

University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 3620 South Vermont Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Environmental Chemistry and Technology Program, 660 North Park Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA

University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA

12 06 2008

8 3 11643 11672

This is an open-access article ditributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article is available from http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/11643/2008/acpd-8-11643-2008.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/8/11643/2008/acpd-8-11643-2008.pdf

In this study, two different types of assays were used to quantitatively measure the redox activity of PM and to examine its intrinsic toxicity: 1) in vitro exposure to rat alveolar macrophage (AM) cells using dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFH-DA) as the fluorescent probe (macrophage ROS assay), and: 2) consumption of dithiothreitol (DTT) in a cell-free system (DTT assay). Coarse (PM10–2.5), accumulation (PM2.5–0.25), and quasi-ultrafine (quasi-UF, PM0.25) mode particles were collected weekly at five sampling sites in the Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbor and at one site near the University of Southern California campus (urban site). All PM samples were analyzed for organic (total and water-soluble) and elemental carbon, organic species, inorganic ions, and total and water-soluble elements. Quasi-UF mode particles showed the highest redox activity at all Long Beach sites (on both a per-mass and per-air volume basis). A significant association (R2=0.61) was observed between the two assays, indicating that macrophage ROS and DTT levels are affected at least partially by similar PM species. Relatively small variation was observed for the DTT measurements across all size fractions and sites, whereas macrophage ROS levels showed more significant ranges across the three different particle size modes and throughout the sites (coefficients of variation, or CVs, were 0.35, 0.24 and 0.53 for quasi-UF, accumulation, and coarse mode particles, respectively). Association between the PM constituents and the redox activity was further investigated using multiple linear regression models. The results showed that OC was the most important component influencing the DTT activity of PM samples. The variability of macrophage ROS was explained by changes in OC concentrations and water-soluble vanadium (probably originating from ship emissions – bunker oil combustion). The multiple regression models were used to predict the average diurnal macrophage ROS and DTT levels as a function of the OC concentration at one of the sampling sites.

References 1

Birmili, W., Allen, A. G., Bary, F., and Harrison, R. M.: Trace Metal Concentrations and Water Solubility in Size-Fractionated Atmospheric Particles and Influence of Road Traffic, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 1144–1153, 2006.

Cho, A. K., Sioutas, C., Miguel, A. H., Kumagai, Y., Schmitz, D. A., Singh, M., Eiguren-Fernandez, A., and Froines, J. R.: Redox activity of airborne particulate matter at different sites in the Los Angeles Basin, Environ Res, 99, 40–47, 2005.

Chowdhury, Z., Zheng, M., Schauer, J. J., Sheesley, R. J., Salmon, L. G., Cass, G. R., and Russell, A. G.: Speciation of ambient fine organic carbon particles and source apportionment of PM2.5 in Indian cities, J. Geophys. Res., 112(D15), D15303, 2007.

Decesari, S., Facchini, M. C., Matta, E., Lettini, F., Mircea, M., Fuzzi, S., Tagliavini, E., and Putaud, J. P.: Chemical features and seasonal variation of fine aerosol water-soluble organic compounds in the Po Valley, Italy, , Atmos. Environ., 35, 3691–3699, 2001.

Dockery, D. W., Pope III, D. C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J. D., Ware, J. H., Fay, M. E., Ferris, B. G., and Speizer, F. E.: An Association between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six US Cities, N. Engl. J. Med., 329, 1753–1759, 1993.

Geller, M. D., Ntziachristos, L., Mamakos, A., Samaras, Z., Schmitz, D. A., Froines, J. R., and Sioutas, C.: Physicochemical and redox characteristics of particulate matter (PM) emitted from gasoline and diesel passenger cars, Atmos. Environ., 40, 6988–7004, 2006.

Heal, M. R., Hibbs, L. R., Agius, R. M., and Beverland, L. J.: Total and water-soluble trace metal content of urban background PM10, PM2.5 and black smoke in Edinburgh, UK, Atmos. Environ., 39, 1417–1430, 2005.

Herner, J. D., Green, P. G., and Kleeman, M. J.: Measuring the trace elemental composition of size-resolved airborne particles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 1925–1933, 2006.

Ho, K. F., Lee, S. C., Cao, J. J., Li, Y. S., Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., and Fung, K.: Variability of organic and elemental carbon, water soluble organic carbon, and isotopes in Hong Kong, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4569–4576, 2006.

Isakson, J., Persson, T. A., and Selin Lindgren, E.: Identification and assessment of ship emissions and their effects in the harbour of Goteborg, Sweden, Atmos. Environ., 35, 3659–3666, 2001.

Kerminen, V. M., Teinila, K., Hillamo, R., and Pakkanen, T.: Substitution of chloride in sea-salt particles by inorganic and organic anions, J. Aerosol Sci., 29, 929–942, 1998.

Li, N., Sioutas, C., Cho, A., Schmitz, D., Misra, C., Sempf, J., Wang, M. Y., Oberley, T., Froines, J., and Nel, A.: Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage, Environ. Health Perspect., 111, 455–460, 2003.

Lin, C. C., Chen, S. J., Huang, K. L., Hwang, W. I., Chang-Chien, G. P., and Lin, W. Y.: Characteristics of metals in nano/ultrafine/fine/coarse particles collected beside a heavily trafficked road, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 8113–8122, 2005.

Lu, G., Brook, J. R., Alfarra, M. R., Anlauf, K., Leaitch, W. R., Sharma, S., Wang, D., Worsnop, D. R., and Phinney, L.: Identification and characterization of inland ship plumes over Vancouver, BC, Atmos. Environ., 40, 2767–2782, 2006.

Miyazaki, Y., Kondo, Y., Takegawa, N., Komazaki, Y., Fukuda, M., Kawamura, K., Mochida, M., Okuzawa, K., and Weber, R. J.: Time-resolved measurements of water-soluble organic carbon in Tokyo, J Geophys Res, 111(D23), D23206, 2006.

Mudway, I. S., Stenfors, N., Duggan, S. T., Roxborough, H., Zielinski, H., Marklund, S. L., Blomberg, A., Frew, A. J., Sandstrom, T., and Kelly, F. J.: An in vitro and in vivo investigation of the effects of diesel exhaust on human airway lining fluid antioxidants, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 423, 200–212, 2004.

Nel, A.: ATMOSPHERE: Enhanced: Air Pollution-Related Illness: Effects of Particles, Science, 308, 804–806, doi:10.1126/science.1108752, 2005.

Ntziachristos, L., Froines, J. R., Cho, A. K., and Sioutas, C.: Relationship between redox activity and chemical speciation of size-fractionated particulate matter, Part Fibre Toxicol, 4, 5, 2007a.

Ntziachristos, L., Ning, Z., Geller, M. D., Sheesley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., and Sioutas, C.: Fine, ultrafine and nanoparticle trace element compositions near a major freeway with a high heavy-duty diesel fraction, Atmos. Environ., 41, 5684–5696, 2007b.

Pio, C. A., and Lopes, D. A.: Chlorine loss from marine aerosol in a coastal atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res. D. Atmos., 103, 25 263–25 272, 1998.

Polidori, A., Turpin, B. J., Lim, H.-J., Cabada, J. C., Subramanian, R., Pandis, S. N., and Robinson, A. L.: Local and Regional Secondary Organic Aerosol: Insights from a Year of Semi-Continuous Carbon Measurements at Pittsburgh, , Aerosol Sci. Technol., 40, 861–872, 2006.

Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Thun, M. J., Calle, E. E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., and Thurston, G. D.: Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 287, 1132–1141, 2002.

Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Thurston, G. D., Thun, M. J., Calle, E. E., Krewski, D., and Godleski, J. J.: Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution - Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease, Circulation, 109, 71–77, 2004.

Rodhe, H.: Human impact on the atmospheric sulfur balance, Tellus Series a-Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography, 51, 110–122, 1999.

Ruellan, S. and Cachier, H.: Characterisation of fresh particulate vehicular exhausts near a Paris high flow road, Atmos. Environ., 35, 453–468, 2001.

Schauer, J. J.: Evaluation of elemental carbon as a marker for diesel particulate matter, J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol., 13, 443–453, 2003.

Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change, John Wiley, New York, 1998.

Sheesley, R. J., Schauer, J. J., N.D., S., and M.D., H.: Development of a standardized method for the analysis of organic compounds present in PM$_2.5.$: Procedings of AWMA Annual Meeting 2000, Salt Lake City, UT, 2000,

Sioutas, C., Delfino, R. J., and Singh, M.: Exposure assessment for atmospheric ultrafine particles (UFPs) and implications in epidemiologic research, Environ. Health Perspect., 113, 947–955, 2005.

Su, D., Serafino, A., Muller, J.-O., Jenloft, R. E., Schlogl, R., and Fiorito, S.: Cytotoxicity and inflammatory potential of soot particles of low-emission diesel engines. , Environ. Sci. Technol., in press, 2008.

Sullivan, A. P. and Weber, R. J.: Chemical characterization of the ambient organic aerosol soluble in water: 1. Isolation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic fractions with a XAD-8 resin, J. Geophys. Res. D. Atmos., 111(D5), D05314, 2006.

Turpin, B. J., Saxena, P., and Andrews, E.: Measuring and Simulating Particulate Organics in the Atmosphere: Problems and Propects., Atmos. Environ., 34, 2983–3013, 2000.

Weber, R. J., Sullivan, A. P., Peltier, R. E., Russell, A., Yan, B., Zheng, M., De Gouw, J., Warneke, C., Brock, C., Holloway, J. S., Atlas, E. L., and Edgerton, E.: A study of secondary organic aerosol formation in the anthropogenic-influenced southeastern United States, J. Geophys. Res., 112(D13), D13302, 2007.

Zheng, M., Cass, G. R., Schauer, J. J., and Edgerton, E. S.: Source apportionment of PM2.5 in the southeastern United States using solvent-extractable organic compounds as tracers, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 2361–2371, 2002.